Learning

Associative Learning - Certain events occur together

Types of Learning

Classical - Pavlov

• Unconditioned Stimulus - Naturally and automatically triggers a response
• Unconditioned Response - The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS
• Conditioned Stimulus -  After association, triggers response
• Conditioned Response - Learned response to previously neutral stimulus

Terms

• Acquisition - Initial stage of learning; neutral stimulus associated with UCS -> neutral stimulus elicit CR [CS before UCS; close in timing]
• Extinction - Diminishing of conditioned response -> UCS does not follow CS
• Spontaneous Recovery - Reappearance of extinguished CS
• Generalization - Likelihood for stimuli similar to CS to elicit responses
• Discrimination - Ability to distinguish between CS and other stimuli that does not signal UCS

Operant 

Learning which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

• Classical vs. Operant - Acquisition, Discrimination, SR, Generalization, Extinction
• Classical - Automatic respondent behavior
• Operant - Behavior influence environment, can have consequences

Edward Thorndike - (Law of Effect) Rewarded behavior likely to recover

B.F. Skinner

• Shaping - Procedure in op. conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer toward goal
• Reinforcer - Event that strengthens behavior
• Positive - Stimulus after response
• Negative - Reducing/ Removal of aversive stimulus
• Primary - innately reinforcing stimulus
• Secondary - Reinforces through association with primary stimulus

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous - Reinforces after every occurrence
• Partial - Reinforces after certain response part
• Fixed Ratio - Reinforces response after certain # of responses
• Variable Ratio - Reinforces after unpredictable amount of responses
• Fixed Interval - Reinforces after elapsed time
• Variable Interval - Reinforces after unpredictable time intervals

Punishments - To reduce behaviors

• Positive - Addition of something unpleasant
• Negative - Removal of something pleasant
• Works when done after behavior and is harsh

Token Economy - Desirable behavior -> Token

• Can be used for prizes (reinforcers); in homes,prisons,asylums, and schools

Observational Learning - From Albert Bandura & Bobo doll -> Learning by copying behavior from others

• Observational Learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory

Latent Learning - Not immediately evident; Edward Toleman; Three rat experiment

Insight Learning - Wolfgang Koehler & Chimpanzees - Learn through "Ah Ha" Experience. 

Intelligence

Intelligence - Able to learn form experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

• Socially constructed -> culturally specific
• One or more abilities - Factor Analysis - a stat procedure that ID's clusters of related items on a test
• Spearman used to discover "g"
• Multiple INT - Gardner disagrees, theory comes from savants
• Visual/Spatial, Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Musical/Rhythmic, Inter/Intrapersonal, Natural

3 Aspects of INT- Simple-Analytical, Creative, Practical

Emotional INT - Soc. INT, ABC to perceive, express, understand, and control emotions

Brain size &  INT - +.15 correlation b/t head size and INT; MRI -> +.44 correlation with size & IQ

Brain Functions & INT - High use less active than hows (glucose); Neurological speed faster.

To assess INT

• Mental age - Alfred Binet, Theodore Simon; Person of age should know.
• Can predict future performance-test on children
• IQ - Binet's research for modern IQ test called Stanford-Binet Test
• Prob - Inconsistent on adults
  
• Wechster Adult INT scale - 11 subtests and strength aves w/ FA
• Aptitude vs. Achievement - Test to predict future performance ability vs. test to assess what person has learned

Tests

• Standardization - Pre-tested to represent sample of people and form bell curve - Flynn Effect
• Reliability - Extent which test has consistent results over time (Split-halves, Test & Retest)
• Validity - Extent to measure needed measures
• Content - Sample behavior of interest
• Predictive - Predict future behavior
• Change? - Age 3 - Child's IQ able IQ; Crystallized or fluid
• Group Difference - Bell curve different for whites vs. blacks; Math different across genders; high in males
• Why? Nature vs. Nurture
• Test Bias - Tests discriminate; purpose could be discrimination; find type of discrimination

States of Consciousness

Sleep - State of consciousness - less aware of surroundings
Biological Rhythms

• Annual - Seasonal Variations (Hibernate, SAD)
• 28 Day - Menstrual
• 24 H - Circadian Rhythm
• 90 min - Sleep Cycles

Circadian Rhythm - Bio Clock; Bodt temperature & awareness change throughout the day

Sleep Stages

5 stages; takes 90-100 min; brain waves change depending on the stage.

1st 4 stages -> Non REM Sleep        5th stage -> REM sleep

1. Stage 1 - Awake-ish & asleep-ish; small duration during the night. eyes slightly roll, Theta waves
2. Stage 2 - Baseline, part of 90 min. cycle (45-60% of sleep); more theta waves -> slows down; show sleep spindles - short bursts of brain activity
3. Stages 3 and 4 - Slow wave sleep w/delta waves; if awakened, very groggy; restores body's growth hormones and good overall health. IMPORTANT
• 15-30 min.; slows brain activity -> delta waves have higher amp; DEEPEST SLEEP; Delta sleep needed by sleep-deprived; 40% of sleep time in children ("dead asleep")
4. REM Sleep - Very active sleep; stage of sleep; body paralysis; 20-25% of sleep; breathing, brain activity, and heart rate increase; REM -> Stage 2

Sleep Disorders

• Insomnia - Recurring problems falling asleep or staying asleep; not from avg. amount of sleep
• Narcolepsy - Uncontrollable sleep attacks; Directly to REM sleep (from joy or fear)
• Sleep Apnea - Temporary cessations in breathing while asleep and consequent momentary awakenings
• Night Terrors - High arousal and terrified appearance in stage 4; forgotten
• Sleepwalking - During deep nonREM sleep early in the night

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Dreams - Sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts through a sleeping person's mind

• Manifest - Remembered storyline of a dream
• Latent - Underlying meaning of a dream

Theories 

• Freud - Key to understand hidden conflicts; ideas and thoughts hidden in unconscious
• Information Processing - Dreams act to understand and sort out memories of the day
• REM sleep increases after stressful events
• Activation Synthesis - Brainstem reduces random neural activity, dreams try to interpret that activity.

Language

Language - Our spoken, written, or gestured words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning.

-emes

• Phonemes - Spoken language - smallest distinctive sound unit [chug - ch, u, g]
• Morphemes - Smallest unit that carries meaning; a word or part of a word

Grammar - System of rules in a language that allows us to communicate and understand others.

• Semantics - Set of rules by which we derive meaning in a language. EX: -ed = past tense
• Syntax - Rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences

Language Development

1. Babbling Stage - 3-4 mo.; infant makes sounds, not limited to phonemes
2. One word stage - 1-2 yrs.; one word to communicate meanings
3. Two word stage- 2 yrs.; two words to comm.- telegraphic speech

Social Learning Theory - Skinner; Pick up through socialization

Chomsky - Acquire language too quickly to learn it; "Learning box" in head allows us to learn any human language [Inborn Universal Grammar]

Whorf's Linguistic Relativity - Language determines the way we think

Thinking

Cognition - Thinking, knowing and remembering

• Concepts - To think about the world, mental grouping of similar objects, ideas, people
• Like schemas
• Based on prototypes - mental image or best example of category

Solving Problems

• Trial & Error
• Algorithms - Methodical logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.
• Heuristics - Strategy that allows us to make judgement and solve efficiently; shortcut prone to errors
• Insight - Sudden and novel realization of solution to problem

Obstacles

• Confirmation bias - Likelihood to search for info to confirm self perceptions
• Fixation - Cannot see problem from other view
• Mental Set - Likelihood to approach problem in a particular way esp. if it worked in the past.
• Functional Fixedness - Likelihood to think of many things only in terms of their usual functions

Types of Heuristics

• Representativeness - Rule of thumb for judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they match our prototype; can make us forget important info.
• Availability - Est. the likelihood of events based on avail.; memory comes into mind easily = common

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Overconfidence - Likelihood to be more confident than correct; overestimate accuracy of beliefs and judgements.

Framing - Why issue is posted -> drastically affects decisions and judgements

Belief Bias - Likelihood for one's initial beliefs to distort logical reasoning; makes invalid conclusions valid or vice versa.

Belief Perseverance - Clinging to your initial conceptions after basis of being discredited.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Recall vs. Recognition

• Recall - Retrieve info from memory
• Recognition - Identify target from possible targets

Memory Process

1. Encoding - Processing of information
2. Storage - Retention of encoded material over time
3. Retrieval - Getting info out of storage

Sensory Memory - A half second holding tank for all sensory info; Iconic/Echoic Memory

Short Term Memory - Encoded from STM; encoded visually, acoustically, or semantically; holds 7 items for 20 seconds; works better with numbers

Methods to convert STM to LTM

• Chunking - Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
• Mnemonic Devices
• Rehearsal

Long Term Memory - Limitless storehouse of information

• Explicit (declarative) memories; includes episodic and semantic memories
• Implicit (non-declarative) memories; includes procedural and conditioned memories

Encoding Information - Serial positioning effect 

• Primary - We remember the first items the best
• Recency effect - We remember the last items after just hearing them 

Spacing effect - Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve

Encoding ways

• Visual - Encoding pictures
• Acoustic - Encoding of sound, esp. sound of words
• Semantic - Encoding meaning

Flashbulb Memories - Memories of significant events

Mood Congruent Memory - Memories retrieved match current mood

State Dependent Mood - Memories retrieved match current state

Forgetting

• Retroactive interference - New info blocks out old info
• Proactive interference - old information blocks out new information

Long Term Potentiation

• Long-lasting improvement in signal transmission between two neurons that results fro stimulating them synchronously
• Improved efficiency creates memories

Train your memory!

Developmental Pyschology

Study of you from womb to tomb.
Nature vs. Nurture - Way you were born / Way you were raised

Physical Development (Or the Way You Grow)

Prenatal - Begins with egg and sperm fertilized = zygote

1. Zygote - Lasts two weeks with rapid cell division.

• Less than half of all zygotes survive first two weeks
• Attaches to uterine wall after ten days
• Placenta - Outer part of zygote; Filters oxygen and nutrient
  

     2.  Embryo - After two weeks, lasts for six weeks.

• Heart beats and organs develop

     3.  Fetus - After nine weeks; Organs formed enough for independent survival.

Teratogens - Chemicals that can harm prenatal environment. EX: Alcohol (FAS), STDs, HIV, Herpes, Drugs.

Reflexes

Inborn automatic responses

• Rooting - When a newborn infant is touched on the cheek, infant turns its head toward the source of stimulation.
  
• Grasping - If an object is placed into a baby's palm, baby will try to grasp object with fingers.
• Moro - When startled, baby will fling limbs out and quickly retract them.
• Babinski - When a baby's foot is stroked, it will spread its toes.

Maturation - Physical growth processes enable orderly changes in behavior, regardless of environment.

Cognition - Mental activities w/thinking, knowing, and remembering.

Cognitive Development

Researched by Jean Piaget

• Schemas - Way to interpret world
• Assimilation - Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas
• High School - Meet someone -> assimilate into schema.
• Accomadation - Changing an existing schema to adapt to new information.

Piaget

• Sensorimotor - Experience world through senses
• Object Permanence - 6-8 months of age
• Preoperational - 2- 6 or 7 - Use language to represent objects and ideas; "Magical Thinking" 
• Conservation - Quantity is the same despite changes in appearance; part of logical thinking.
• Concrete Operational - Demonstrate conservation, logic think, understanding of reversibility.
• Formal Operational - Abstract reasoning, hypothesis testing, reasoning with metaphors and analogies.
• Criticisms
• Information-Processing Model - Children learn in continuous growth pattern
• Underestimates children's ability; Attention span grows over time.

Social Development

• > 1 year - infants indifferent to stranger
• Stranger anxiety - After one year, common in infants.

Attachment

• Most important social construct (bond with caregiver)
• Animals form attachment through imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)
• Origins - Harry Harlow used monkeys; needed touch or body contact to form attachment. (Cloth vs. Wire)

Critical Period - After birth organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produce proper development.

Types of Attachment

• Secure - Some distress when parent leaves, seek contact at the reunion, explore when parent gone, play and greet when parent present.
• Separation Anxiety - Anxiety when infant loses object of attachment. 14 to 18 months

Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian - Strict standards for behavior
• Permissive - Allows freedom, lax parenting, don't enforce rules consistently
• Authoritative - Reasonable standards of expectation, encourage independence.

Stage Theorists

Believe we travel from stage to stage throughout lives.

Freud - Libido, travels though body in development.

1. Oral (0-1) - Pleasure by mouth
2. Anal Stage (1-3) - Controlling & Expelling waste
3. Phallic Stage - Recognize gender, Oedipus/Electra complex
4. Latency (6-11) - Cooties
5. Genital Stage - Libido in genitals, feelings toward others.

Adolescence

Transition from childhood to adulthood

• Puberty - Sexual maturation -> becomes capable of reproducing
• Primary Char. - Body structures that make production possible
• Secondary Char. - Non-reproductive sexual char.
• Landmarks - Menarche, Spermarche

Adulthood

Physical abilities peak by mid-twenties

• Milestones
• Menopause - Ending of woman's ability to reproduce

Intelligence

• Crystallized - Accumulated, increases with age
• Fluid - Ability to solve problems quickly and think abstractly; Peaks in 20s and then decreases.

Alzheimer's - Progressive and irreversible deterioration of memory, language, and physical functioning. Caused by less ACH.

Life Expectancy

Around 75; Women outlive men by 4 years; Men conceived 126 to 100; 105 to 100 by birth.

Death

Stages of Death/Grief

1. Denial
2. Anger
3. Bargaining
4. Depression
5. Acceptance